Bacteriophages

Bacteriophages, often referred to as phages, are viruses that specifically infect and replicate within bacteria. The term “bacteriophage” originates from the Greek words “bakterion,” meaning small rod or staff, and “phagein,” meaning to devour. These fascinating entities play a crucial role in the balance of microbial ecosystems, impacting bacterial populations and influencing microbial diversity.

Structure and Classification

Bacteriophages exhibit diverse structures, but they typically consist of a protein coat, or capsid, surrounding their genetic material. The genetic material can be either DNA or RNA, and the capsid may take on various shapes, such as icosahedral or helical.

We can describe three main groups:-

1 – tailless

2 – head with tail

3 – filamentous

The genetic material can be single- or double-stranded DNA or RNA. The double stranded DNA is the most common.

Tailed and tailless phages have their genome contained i.e. encapsulated in an icosahedral protein shell called a capsid which is often call ed a head.

In dsDNA phases, the genome makes up half the mass of the phage particle.

Bacteriophages are broadly classified into two main types based on their life cycle: lytic and lysogenic.

Lytic Life Cycle

In the lytic life cycle, bacteriophages infect a bacterial cell, hijack its cellular machinery, and utilize it to replicate their own genetic material and assemble new viral particles. This ultimately leads to the lysis, or bursting, of the bacterial cell, releasing a multitude of phages that can infect neighboring bacteria. Lytic bacteriophages are often used in phage therapy to combat bacterial infections.

Lysogenic Life Cycle

Contrastingly, in the lysogenic life cycle, bacteriophages integrate their genetic material into the bacterial chromosome. This integration, known as prophage, allows the viral DNA to replicate along with the bacterial DNA during cell division without causing immediate harm. Under certain conditions, the prophage can switch to the lytic cycle, leading to the production of new phages and the destruction of the host bacterial cell.

Discovery and History

The discovery of bacteriophages dates back to the early 20th century. Independently, Frederick Twort and Félix d’Hérelle observed the phenomenon of bacteria being destroyed by an unknown agent. D’Hérelle coined the term “bacteriophage” and recognized its potential applications in treating bacterial infections. Subsequently, phage therapy gained attention as an alternative to antibiotics.

In the 1940s Max Delbruck formed the ‘Phage Group’ to work on bacteriophages for what was the start of modern biotechnology using these agents.

Phage Therapy

Phage therapy involves using bacteriophages to treat bacterial infections. With the rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, there has been renewed interest in exploring phages as a therapeutic option. Phages can be isolated from natural sources, such as sewage or environmental samples, and selected for their specificity against target bacteria. While challenges exist, including the potential for the development of phage-resistant bacteria, ongoing research explores the feasibility and effectiveness of phage therapy in various medical applications.

Phages have now become a significant answer to controlling food safety microorganisms. Given the growing concerns around continual outbreaks of food poisoning and ensuring environmental sustainability with those solutions, the use of phages might just be part of that answer. Recently, the novel Escherichia phage (CAM-21) was incorporated into biodegradeable packaging films. Their antimicrobial activity was assessed  and it was noted they decreased the numbers of the test organism E. coli O157:H7 (Shirani & Mustapha, 2024).

Ecological Significance

Bacteriophages play a crucial role in shaping microbial communities and maintaining ecological balance. They contribute to the control of bacterial populations, influencing the abundance and diversity of bacteria in various environments, from oceans to soil. The dynamic interactions between bacteriophages and bacteria contribute to the complexity of microbial ecosystems.

Biotechnological Applications

Beyond therapeutic uses, bacteriophages have found applications in biotechnology. They are employed in phage display, a technique enabling the presentation of foreign proteins on the phage surface. This facilitates the study of protein-protein interactions and the identification of potential drug targets. Additionally, phages are used in molecular biology as vectors for introducing foreign genes into bacterial hosts.

Challenges and Considerations

Despite their potential, the use of bacteriophages faces challenges. The specificity of phages may limit their broad-spectrum effectiveness, requiring a careful selection of phages tailored to specific bacterial strains. Moreover, concerns about the development of resistance in bacteria and the potential for adverse immune responses in humans highlight the need for further research and refinement of phage-based therapies.

Bacteriophages represent a captivating and multifaceted aspect of microbiology, influencing bacterial populations, impacting ecosystems, and holding promise for therapeutic and biotechnological applications. As our understanding of these viruses deepens, ongoing research will likely uncover new avenues for harnessing their potential, addressing challenges, and expanding the scope of phage-based interventions in the fight against bacterial infections and beyond.

References

Shirani, K., Mustapha, A. (2024) Antimicrobial Potential of novel CAM-21 Bacteriophase against Escherichia coli O157:H7 in biodegradeable films. IFT Poster 2024 Chicago USA.